Important Liberal thinkers

Human beings are rational, guided by the pursuit of self-interest, but mindful of other concerns. Humans' rationality enables them not to have destructive tendencies.

Society predates the state; there were ‘natural’ societies with natural laws and rights. Rejects the conservative view that no society could arise without formal authority.

Requires a limited government to protect our freedom as ‘where laws do not exist a man has no freedom’. Achieved through a social contract. (ie. constitution). As rational entities, we realise that our liberties are best protected by a state, who can properly uphold our basic liberties.

He placed importance on property rights as he felt that the natural right of property comes from the right of one’s labour. State policy should respect the “natural right” to private property and arbitrate effectively between individuals competing for trade and resources.

Rationalism defines both genders; intellectually men and women are not different and are equal. Women may appear inferior due to a lack of education and opportunity. An optimistic view of human nature parallel to that of the Enlightenment but thought it should apply to women as well.

Looked down on society, believing it had oppressed women and had stifled ‘female individualism’. Thought society had ‘infantilised’ women and made them seem weak and society is flawed because it undermines women.

The monarchical state should be replaced by a republic which enshrines women's rights. Wanted to put power in elected officials, with women having representatives to help further their course By denying women the right to vote, the state was violating the idea of government by consent.

Once women were liberated, they will be able to energise the free market economy wanted women to be able to have economic freedom, believing that this was harming society by having women as “domestic slaves”. Women should be allowed the same rights regarding private property as men.

Although fundamentally rational, human nature is not fixed and always progressing to higher levels. Developed the harm principle which distinguishes between self-rewarding and other-regarding actions. We should be free to pursue those actions that in no way constrain the liberty of others. We should, therefore, be able to engage in self-regarding action. 

The ideal society is one where individuality coexisted with tolerance and self-improvement. Mill warns us against the mediocrity of public opinion and the tendency to tell everyone to act in the same manner. The despotism of custom seeks to crush self-expression and is therefore contrary to the right and proper goal of a liberal society. We need to facilitate“experiments in living” in order that freedom is experienced to the very full. A liberal society is one that tolerates the full diversity of lifestyles.

The state should proceed cautiously towards representative democracy, mindful of minority rights. The liberal state should not tolerate “other-regarding” human actions, which could include violent or riotous behaviour. Mill was concerned that government by consent would be compromised if the wishes of some individuals wereoverwhelmed by the majority of individuals. Mill feared a democratic state had the potential to create ‘tyranny of the majority’

Laissez-faire capitalism is vital to progress, individual enterprise and initiative.

Mill favoured inheritance taxation, trade protectionism, and regulation of employees’ hours of work. Although Mill favoured mandatory education, he did not advocate mandatory schooling.

Instead, he advocated a voucher system for schools and

a state system of exams to ensure that people have reached a minimum level of learning.

Thomas Hill Green 1836-1882

Green was an English philosopher and a member of the British idealism movement. He challenged early thinkers like Locke and Mill and become one of the key thinkers behind social liberalism.

1. Positive freedom 2. The common good

“It is pointless being free to read a book if no one has taught you to read”

Laws alone cannot make people good, but they can enable individuals to make themselves good. The ego is constrained by a certain degree of selflessness 

Green views society a whole and for it to prosper, it needs both positive freedom and protection of rights. This required individuals to develop consciousness - man must be conscious of what he should do and the idea of the common good, which is the supreme guide for all individuals. Thus, this implies, the right and liberty of one individual in society are dependent upon the right and liberty of others.

Society is, therefore, a complete whole and the pursuance of exclusive self-interest, or negative freedom, has no place.

Unlike Locke, Green does not believe the state create rights but rather gives reality to rightsthat already exist. Like Rousseau, he believed the states laws must reflect the ‘general will’ of the people, what he called general law, since the state is not a timeless entity if citizens can rebel against it when it overshadowed the general will. Therefore, unlike Rousseau, he didn’t believe individuals should be forced to obey the general will which represents the common good. He believed this would occur naturally when consciousness arises. Thus, the state has two roles: 1) uphold the law and 2) protect the common good.

Green supported an interventionist economy and social welfarism. He argued economic misery led people to be involved in immoral activities, which can be reduced with the help of the state.

Inequalities of wealth in the economy is inevitable and often beneficial under capitalism. Taxes on an individual’s income and wealth is legitimate on the grounds it provides security for his holdings. Free trade produces a redistribution of resources from where they are of least use to most users. Capitalism benefits everyone in the long run: the wealth of the rich is used to raise the standard of living.

Mankind is selfish yet empathetic, valuing both individual liberty and the plight of those around them. Foundational equality meant that individuals required both equality under the law and social and economic equality.

The society most individuals would choose would be the one where the condition of the poorest improved. Rawls constructed the original position (the current society which requires individuals to create a better society) and the veil of ignorance (individuals are not aware of any other factors) and are all rational, free and morally equal beings.

The society most individuals would choose would be the one where the condition of the poorest improved. Rawls constructed the original position (the current society which requires individuals to create a better society) and the veil of ignorance (individuals are not aware of any other factors) and are all rational, free and morally equal beings 

Free market capitalism should be tempered by the state’s obligation to advance its poorest citizens. An enabling state, a redistribution of wealth is needed to improve the lives of the poor. Higher-income - leads to a higher % of income paid in tax. This means that some individuals who have higher incomes would sacrifice more of their earnings to the state

.Human nature has evolved in a way that discourages self-advancement among women. Believes all individuals should be free to seek control of their lives. Gender is a hindrance to all individuals who were female in allowing them to realise their full potential. Believed in the equality of all and rejected both male and female chauvinism (the idea that women had any superiority)

Society remained chauvinistic against women, with women being complicit in their own repression. The illiberal views within society (as opposed to human nature) condemned women to underachievement. Women were sold a lifestyle that centred around marriage, the home, the family. This conditioning meant many women believed their life was controlled by human nature and not their own rationality.

The state should legislate to prevent discrimination against female individuals. Cited the ‘harm principle’ in favour of an enabling state, stating that laws criminalising discrimination prevented females from having their liberties harmed by others. Rejected the idea the state was patriarchal and forever controlled by a dominant gender, offering a more optimistic view.

Free-market legislation can help female emancipation from the patriarchal society if used with legislation to prevent sexua ldiscrimination. Believed that the government should interfere with the economy via Keynesian Economy.