Political Parties in the USA
The Founders had a negative view of political parties, seeing them as factions driven by ambition and self-interest. George Washington, troubled by the conflicts between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson in his cabinet, dedicated a significant portion of his farewell address to denouncing parties. In that address, he stated that the persistent issues caused by party spirit necessitate that wise people work to discourage and limit it. He believed that parties distract public decision-making and weaken governance. They stir up unfounded jealousy and false fears within the community, arousing hostility between groups and sometimes leading to riots and insurrections. Washington clearly held a strong dislike for political parties.
However today we tend to think a key element of a healthy democracy is the power of citizens to impact the government through their votes. For their influence to be significant, people need to communicate clearly to their leaders about their expectations for government actions. It follows that a democracy thrives when voters have multiple distinct choices at the polls on Election Day. These choices allow voters to pick candidates who better align with their views on important issues. Additionally, having various options encourages potential voters to engage in the election process. Voters are more likely to participate when they care about the outcomes. The presence of two dominant parties today creates noticeable differences between candidates and party organizations. The reason for this two-party structure lies in how U.S. elections are organized, with each seat linked to a specific geographic district, which often favors two main political parties. Although there may be other parties listed on the ballot, most voters recognize that smaller parties rarely stand a chance at winning any position. As a result, they typically choose candidates from the two major parties to back a likely victor. Among the 535 members of Congress, only a few are affiliated with parties other than Republican or Democrat. Third parties have similarly struggled in presidential elections, with no candidate outside the two major parties ever winning the presidency. Some historians might argue that Abraham Lincoln falls into this category, but in 1860, he ran for a major party—the Republicans—who had absorbed members from earlier parties like the Whig Party, making them one of the two primary parties alongside the Democrats.
Why Two Dominant Parties?
Several factors contribute to the two-party system in U.S. elections, with much of the responsibility attributed to how representatives are chosen. Primarily, most state and national elections follow a winner-take-all approach, where the candidate with the highest number of votes wins. This system helps voters form a connection with their representative since they know exactly who is accountable for governmental actions. However, this method can discourage other qualified candidates from running, especially if they believe the incumbent or another candidate has an early edge. Additionally, voters tend to avoid casting votes for third parties unless they believe those parties have a genuine chance of winning. This is a significant challenge, especially with the resources and strategies that established parties possess, particularly when incumbents are involved. The difficulty in winning elections for third-party candidates also hampers their ability to raise funds for future campaigns.
Winner-take-all systems, including those in other countries, require the winner to achieve either a majority or a plurality of votes. In the U.S., elections operate on a plurality basis, meaning the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of whether they achieve a majority of over 50 percent. For example, Abraham Lincoln won the presidency in 1860 without a majority, securing only 40 percent of the votes amid four competing candidates. Although he lacked majority support, he obtained enough electoral votes to win. Plurality voting is seen as a straightforward and cost-effective way to determine a winner, allowing elections to take place on a single day with quick results. Conversely, systems where voters select candidates in their districts can be more costly due to the complexities of drawing district lines and registering voters.
In a system where candidates compete for specific seats in unique districts, a candidate needs a substantial number of votes to succeed. Political parties that cater to a small voter base inevitably lose to larger, more popular parties. Since candidates who finish in second place or lower receive no benefits, parties that cannot secure a first-place finish risk fading away as their supporters realize their chances of success are minimal. The inability of third parties to win elections, along with the fear of diluting votes for a favored party, leads to reluctance among voters to support third-party candidates in future elections. This pattern has plagued all U.S. third parties throughout history.
Functions of Parties
First, political parties focus on recruiting and supporting candidates during elections. Party leaders seek out potential candidates to encourage them to run for office and assist in securing the party's nomination. They also aid candidates in fundraising, conducting polls and focus groups, and developing advertisements to ensure their success in the general election. However, candidates can seem to select themselves if they have sufficient personal resources ie money, and fame. In this sense, Trump selected the Republicans as his party rather than the other way around.
Candidates and personal qualities US Elections
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Party realignment and dealignment
Second, parties play a significant role in how voters think. When people in the U.S. arrive at polling places, many identify as either Democrats or Republicans. This identification strongly influences how they assess political leaders and make voting decisions.Political parties serve as significant symbols for voters. Individuals often have a partisan identification, which refers to their long-term connection to a political party, also known as their partisanship. Two key influences on whether someone identifies as a Democrat or Republican include their parents' political leanings and the political context during their formative years. Typically, children of Republican parents are more likely to identify as Republicans themselves. Additionally, the political climate experienced during adolescence also shapes one's partisanship; those who came of age under Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush tend to lean more Republican compared to those who first engaged with politics during Bill Clinton's presidency.
Partisanship remains quite stable over time. Individuals who identify as Democrats at 18 are likely to still identify as Democrats at 75, regardless of changes in circumstances throughout their lives. This sense of partisanship resembles being part of a community or political team. However, while partisanship is largely stable, it can shift in response to significant events. For instance, during the economic prosperity of the 1990s, many voters leaned towards the Democratic Party. Conversely, after the 9/11 attacks, a heightened focus on terrorism and national security led to an increase in Republican identification among voters.
Historically, analyzing the distribution of partisanship reveals a consistent pattern of stability with fluctuations linked to major events. For instance, in the 1950s, Democrats held a considerable advantage, with nearly 60 percent of voters identifying as Democrats compared to around 40 percent as Republicans. Over the decades, this advantage has diminished significantly, and the gap in party identification is now only a few percentage points. One major reason for this shift is the decline of the solid South, where nearly all white Southerners identified as Democrats since the Civil War. As partisan issues diverged, particularly regarding civil rights, many white Southerners transitioned to the Republican Party.
4.4 Influence of Political Events on Ideology
Third, parties help coordinate actions among influential politicians in office. The majority party in both the House and Senate is tasked with organizing legislative operations. Additionally, congressional parties collaborate with the president to push forward his legislative goals. At times, the president and congressional parties share almost complete agreement on certain issues, such as when nearly all House Democrats supported and all House Republicans opposed the final passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, commonly known as Obamacare. However, there are instances when the president and the party have differing views on key matters. For example, while former President Obama aimed to expand free trade, many Democrats in Congress opposed those agreements. It remains uncertain whether congressional Republicans will align with President Trump on significant topics like free trade, taxes, or immigration.
Voter Partisanship, 1952–2016
