Formal sources of presidential power in the US Constitution
How the Constitution sets out the President's formal powers
The structure of constitution place Congress first and clearly saw the president to be subordinate to Congress. Congress would make the laws and keep the president in check. The president was not expected to be busy.
But the constitution was flexible and allowed the presidency to develop to the extent that it is now routinely referred to as the most powerful elected office in the world.
The president's powers are nearly all set out in Article 2, and following the principle of checks and balances, the more significant ones are all checked by Congress. In section 2 of Article 2, the powers are:
commander-in-chief of the armed forces — Congress has the check of the sole power to declare war
to make treaties — Congress has the check of ratification with a two-thirds majority
to appoint senior government officials, ambassadors, Supreme Court justices and justices of the lower federal courts — Congress has the check of confirmation
The only powers in section 2 without a congressional check are:
· to require in writing the opinion of the principal officer of each of the executive departments
· to grant pardons
In section 3 the president's powers are:
· to make the State of the Union speech and recommend legislation 'from time to time' — Congress has the check of rejecting such legislation
to take care that the laws 'be faithfully executed' — Congress has the check of the total control of revenue and expenditure
The only powers in section 3 without a congressional check are:
to convene extraordinary sessions of Congress
to receive ambassadors
The president's only significant power not in Article 2 is detailed in Article 1, section 7, namely the power to approve or veto legislation (although the term 'veto' is not itself used); if the president wishes to veto a bill, he or she has to send the legislation back to Congress with a letter explaining why; Congress has the check of an override, albeit requiring a two-thirds majority in both houses.
The role of the head of state
In the USA the president is also head of state- in the UK the monarch in the head of state. As head of state, the president has diplomatic and ceremonial duties, such as receiving visiting dignitaries and other heads of state or traveling to other countries to represent the US. The president is often a central focus point in times of national crisis and it is common for the president to make speeches or visits about national disasters.
As head of state, the President receives considerable respect and deference. This allows the president to be seen as a national leader, with the opportunity to direct US policy in both national and international affairs. As soon as the president is inaugurated he or she becomes the nation's leader and not just the leader of their party. The rise of national media, particularly television, has allowed the president to deliver a US-wide message and exert greater influence over both public opinion and Congress.
In the aftermath of 9/11, President Bush was seen as a symbol of American resolve and pride, taking a strong, tough stance. However, Bush was heavily criticised for not personally visiting areas hit by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, providing evidence of the importance of the symbolic role.
An example of the president as Head of State responding to a national tragedy.
The role as the head of government. The President is the Chief Executive
Click above for Atlantic article on Trump's use of executive power.
Early in his presidency, Trump—horrified by the gas attack by Syrian President Bashar al-Assad that killed large numbers of civilians—got on the phone with then Defense Secretary Mattis and declared, “Let’s fucking kill him. Let’s go in. Let’s kill the fucking lot of them.” Mattis agreed and said he would get right on it. When he hung up, however, he said to staff, “We’re not going to do any of that.” The real policy? “We’re going to be much more measured.”
Article II section 1 of the constitution describes the scope of the president's executive powers in one sentence. It implies a broad range of roles and responsibilities and control over the vast machinery of the US government- departments and agencies.
'The Executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.'
Does this give the president absolute constitutional control of the executive branch? As the ultimate decision-maker, the president can use the executive branch to pursue his/her political goals and use a complex network of departments and agencies to take control of policy-making and put that policy into practice. But what were the limits on executive authority?
What does this episode suggest?
According to the unitary executive reading of the constitution, the cabinet (mainly the heads of government departments with the title Secretary) and each of the 15 cabinet departments are under the direction of the president- and they should do as they are told. In addition, the president can utilise the Executive Office of the president (EXOP).
Harry Truman had 'The buck stops here' displayed on his deck-to remind himself that he had the final say in executive decisions.
One of the strengths of the US unitary presidency is that it's clear who to hold to account- executive power is in the hands of one person not a cabinet.
In the US there is no concept of Collective Cabinet Responsibility
The president, as head of the executive branch, makes around 3,000 appointments to federal positions, all of which serve at the president's discretion. This means the president can hire or fire them at any time. Trump demonstrated this by easily dismissing those who displeased him.
The president also shapes government policy and influences the political landscape, especially regarding Congress. Additionally, as the chief diplomat, the president manages relationships with other countries and nominates ambassadors. The Constitution designates the president as commander-in-chief of the armed forces, granting authority to lead the military during wartime.
Congress plays a role in checking these powers, especially concerning funding, declaring war, and ratifying treaties. However, the Constitution's vague language has led to debates over the balance of power and claims that presidents have accrued too much power in military matters. This ongoing struggle over military action rights has caused significant disputes. For example, Obama faced criticism for extensive bombing in Libya, which contributed to the fall of Gaddafi without congressional approval. He followed the tradition of presidents like Bill Clinton, who authorized the bombing in Kosovo in 1999 without seeking Congress's consent.
Chief Legislator
Presidents have utilized these sources of presidential authority in various ways. Article II, Section III of the Constitution grants the president the ability to suggest legislation to Congress. However, in the past, early presidents seldom did so - George Washington only offered three laws to Congress. This trend shifted when Franklin D. Roosevelt assumed office in 1933, during the Great Depression peak. Many credit him as the initiator of the contemporary presidency. By reinterpreting some of the sources of presidential authority, Roosevelt broadened the presidential powers. In his initial 100 days in office, he suggested a comprehensive series of laws aiming to decrease unemployment. Since then, proposing legislation to Congress has become one of the most crucial presidential powers. Roosevelt also pioneered the utilization of implied powers, expanding the president’s authority to employ emergency powers during a national crisis. In 1942, shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor prompting the US entry into World War II, Roosevelt issued a controversial executive order that suspended the civil liberties of roughly 120,000 Japanese-Americans and interned them for the war's duration. This decisive action was overturned by the Supreme Court in 1945, and in 1988, Congress formally apologized to and compensated those who were interned. As the chief executive, the president requires specific powers, known as inherent powers. Unlike implied powers, inherent powers are not tied to a particular authority mentioned in the Constitution. Instead, they are fundamental to the president's overall role as described in the Constitution. Following the 9/11 attacks, the George W. Bush administration contended that the president's inherent powers granted him the right to disregard civil liberties and anti-torture laws. Bush directed the long-term detention of terrorist suspects, who were also moved to other countries or US overseas facilities for questioning and torture, under the practice of ‘extraordinary rendition’. Bush faced widespread criticism for interpreting inherent powers too broadly to enhance his own authority.