Anthony Crosland(ed)
Crosland, a British Labour politician and social theorist, was a prominent advocate of revised socialism. In his work The Future of Socialism (1956), he rejected Marxism by arguing that classical capitalism had evolved due to the rise of democracy, progressive taxation, trade unions, welfare reforms, and the separation of ownership from industry control. Crosland redefined socialism based on ethical principles like equality and social justice, rather than class conflict and communal ownership. In Socialism Now (1974), he promoted the concept of 'democratic equality', which acknowledged the benefits of some inequality for societal progress, foreshadowing Rawls's ideas. Despite adjusting the socialist objectives, Crosland endorsed a variety of radical strategies to achieve them, including enhancing the welfare state, employing Keynesian economic policies, implementing progressive taxation, and expanding social ownership through state investments in businesses.
Anthony Crosland (1918–77) Anthony Crosland, a Labour politician and author, made a significant impact on the Labour Party during the 1960s and 1970s with his book "The Future of Socialism" (1956). He argued that capitalism had evolved, with a new class of managers gaining importance and control over production. Crosland emphasized the need for cooperation between these managers and unions, moving away from the focus on nationalization as the primary party policy. As a revisionist, Crosland believed that modern socialists should adapt to contemporary society, accepting private ownership and a mixed economy. He proposed that socialist parties concentrate on reducing poverty and promoting equality through increased investment in public services and education. By prioritizing social justice and welfare improvements, Crosland advocated for economic growth and progressive taxation to fund public services effectively.
Crosland disputed the Marxist perspective on capitalist development, asserting that post-war capitalism lacked the necessary internal conflicts for driving social change as outlined in Marx's historical materialism. He advocated for a 'state-managed capitalism' approach within a mixed economy instead of public ownership to best serve socialism. Crosland believed that equality of opportunity could be attained by providing all state school students with an identical educational experience. He criticized the British school system as the most divisive, unjust, and wasteful aspect of social inequality. Additionally, Crosland contended that Keynesian economics facilitated the realization of state-managed capitalism, enabling continuous economic growth and full employment. This economic setup, according to Crosland, permitted socialists to enhance the welfare state and promote social justice.
His argument was that fundamentally socialism was about the outcome, not methods and that the socialist goal of ending inequality could be achieved by ‘managed capitalism’. In other words, using Keynesian economics, nations would be prosperous enough to afford the expansion of the welfare state, which would enable socialist aims to be achieved. Capitalism could in effect be harnessed to work for socialist ends
Crosland’s more moderate approach to socialism is summed up well by this extract from The Future of Socialism:
'I am sure that a definite limit exists to the degree of equality which is desirable. We do not want complete equality of incomes, since extra responsibility and exceptional talent require and deserve a differential reward. We are not hostile, as our opponents sometimes foolishly suggest, to ‘detached residences in Bournemouth where some elderly woman has obviously more than a thousand a year’.
■Crosland claimed that capitalism was permanently altered by economist John Maynard Keynes, whose advocacy for state-managed capitalism became widely accepted in western Europe post-1945. According to Crosland, Keynesian principles enabled advanced societies to achieve continuous economic growth and full employment without significant expansion of public ownership. This growth facilitated the expansion of the welfare state, leading to reduced inequality and the promotion of socialism. Crosland also observed a significant societal shift, noting that economic changes had made society less divided between employers and employees and more intricate than Marx had envisioned. He identified the emergence of new classes like managers and technocrats, whose perspectives differed from those of traditional workers. Crosland contended that socialism now necessitated a mixed economy, consisting mainly of private enterprise and ownership, with some key services and industries under state ownership. He believed this model was largely realized during the 1945–1951 Labour governments. Crosland argued that the focus for socialist governments should no longer be on increasing public ownership but on enhancing public spending and services.
Anthony Crosland campaigning in 1970
In his later books, The Conservative Enemy (1962) and Socialism Now (1974), Crosland focused on other issues affecting society, notably education. He argued for a new form of state education, known as comprehensive education, which would end the segregation of pupils at the age of 11 and create new schools catering for all abilities. Crosland believed these comprehensive schools would break down class divisions far more effectively than any extension of public ownership, while ensuring all pupils had equality of opportunity. Crosland pursued this idea while Secretary of State for Education between 1965 and 1967, initiating a process that made comprehensive education the norm by the time of his death.
By adopting a mixed economy, social democracy moved away from Beatrice Webb's vision of a democratic socialist state that aimed to dismantle free-market capitalism. Instead, social democracy focused on reforming the system. It became the first form of socialism to acknowledge the importance of the free market and privately owned businesses, a stance that would have been opposed by Marx, Engels, Luxemburg, and Webb. Through economic intervention by the state, such as Keynesian economic regulations, the goal was to maintain full employment and promote economic growth. Crosland contended that Keynesianism supported the idea of equality and provided a strong critique of the prevailing free-market principles. Influenced by Rawls' liberal philosophy, Crosland rejected extreme inequality and advocated for progressive taxation.
